Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

Cover????????????????????????

Title Page??????????????????????????????????

Copyright????????????????????????????????

Contents??????????????????????????????

Preface????????????????????????????

Acknowledgments????????????????????????????????????????????

Part I: Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1: Research and the Social Sciences????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Why Is Understanding Research Methods So Important?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Role of Science in Everyday Life??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Scientic Method

Brief History of the Science of Behavior??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Bacon’s Legacy??????????????????????????????????????????

Other Important Historical Figures??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Assumptions of Science??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Requirements for Scientic Research

Research in Action: The Case of Facilitated Communication????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 2: Ethics and Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

What Is Ethics?????????????????????????????????????????????

Approaches to Ethical Analysis??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Making Ethical Decisions??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Ethical Code of the American Psychological Association??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Seeking Approval for Research: The Institutional Review Board????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Milgram’s Experiment Revisited??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research with Animals????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Ethical Dilemmas??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 3: The Foundations of Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction

The Hypothesis in Research

Types of Hypotheses

Measurement

Reliability of Measurement

Validity of Measurement

Populations and Samples

Research in Action: Measuring Sexism

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter References

Chapter 4: An Overview of Empirical Methods????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Internal, Statistical Conclusion, and External Validity????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Survey of Empirical Methods

Intact Groups Designs and Quasi-Experimental Studies

Surveys????????????????????????????

Correlational Studies????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Single-Participant Research Methods????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Meta-Analysis????????????????????????????????????????

Computers and Statistics??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Effectiveness of Psychotherapy??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Part II: Nuts and Bolts of Research????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 5: Writing the Research Report??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

What Do Readers Appreciate in Good Writing?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Elements of APA Style????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Special Grammatical Issues??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Academic Integrity??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Parts of the Research Report??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Proofreading??????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 6: Reviewing the Literature and Forming Hypotheses??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Bibliographic Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Internet??????????????????????????????????????

Developing a Search Strategy??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Searching the Literature: The Library????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Does Listening to Mozart Make You Smarter???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistical Inference and Testing Hypotheses??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 7: Sampling: The First Steps in Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

The Nature of Samples????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Probability Sampling??????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sampling Methods??????????????????????????????????????????????

Nonprobability Sampling????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Central Limit Theorem????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Applications of the Central Limit Theorem????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Sources of Bias and Error: A Reprise??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Trends in HIV-Related Risk Behaviors??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 8: Creating and Using Assessments, Surveys, and Objective Measures??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Purpose of Measurement??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Caveat Assessor????????????????????????????????????????????

Creating a Measurement Scale and Developing a Data Collection Strategy??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Interviews, Questionnaires, and Attitude Surveys??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Question Response Formats????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Writing Good Questionnaire and Survey Items????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Determining the Sample Size for a Survey??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Naturalistic Observation??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Analysis of Assaults??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 9: A Model for Research Design??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

A Model for Research Design????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

What Is the Independent Variable?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

What Is the Dependent Variable?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Are There Any Confounding Variables???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

What Are the Research Hypotheses?

Mathematical Hypotheses

Evaluating Hypotheses????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Evaluating Hypotheses: Practical Matters??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Sex Differences and Memory for Emotional Events????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Changing Attitudes by Writing Essays??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Part III: Common Research Designs????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 10: Correlational Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Conceptual Review of Correlation??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Pearson’s r????????????????????????????????????

Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient

Factors That Corrupt a Correlation Coefficient

Sample Size and the Correlation Coefficient

Applications of the Correlation Coefficient

Regression Analysis????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction to Mediation and Moderation??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Regression to the Mean??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Searching Short-Term Memory????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistics behind the Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 11: Between-Subjects Designs??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Student’s t-Ratio for Independent Groups??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Review of Hypothesis Testing??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Testing Statistical Hypotheses??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Common Errors in the Interpretation of p??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The Power of a Test????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Estimating Sample Size??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Word Meaning and Memory????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistics behind the Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 12: Single-Variable Between-Subjects Research????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Independent Variable

Cause and Effect

Gaining Control over the Variables??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The General Linear Model??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Components of Variance??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

The F-Ratio????????????????????????????????????

H0 and H1????????????????????????????????

F-Ratio Sampling Distribution????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Summarizing and Interpreting ANOVA Results??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Effect Size and Power????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Multiple Comparisons of the Means????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Detecting Lies??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistics behind the Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 13: Between-Subjects Factorial Designs??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

The Logic of the Two-Variable Design??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Advantages of the Two-Variable Design????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Factorial Designs: Variables, Levels, and Cells????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Examples of Factorial Designs????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Main Effects and Interaction??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Designing a Factorial Study????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Identifying Samples and Estimating Sample Size??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Interpreting the Interaction: Advanced Considerations

Research in Action: Reinforcing Creativity??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistics behind the Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 14: Correlated-Groups Designs????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Logic of the Correlated-Groups Research Design??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Repeated-Measures Design??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Matched-Groups Design????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Mixed-Model Design??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Memory for Related Words??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Statistics behind the Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Part IV: Special Research Designs????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 15: Single-Participant Experiments, Longitudinal Studies, and Quasi-Experimental Designs??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Single-Participant Experiments??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Treatment for Panic Disorder??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Longitudinal Designs??????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Onset of Bulimia??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Quasi-Experiments????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Traffic Laws and Safety

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 16: Research with Categorical Data??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Goodness-of-Fit Test??????????????????????????????????????????????????????

x2 Test of Independence????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

x2 Test of Homogeneity??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Further Analysis of the x2??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

McNemar Test??????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Long-Term Effects of Childhood Abuse??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 17: Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Introduction??????????????????????????????????????

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Theory and Perspectives Guiding Qualitative Research??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Mixing Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Combined????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Data Collection and Analysis??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Benefits and Challenges of Mixed-Methods Research

Sources of Published Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Research in Action: Gender- and Job-Based Differences in Work Stress??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Summary????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter Glossary for Review????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter References??????????????????????????????????????????????????

Appendix A: Statistics behind the Research or, “What Was I Supposed to Remember from My Statistics Class Anyway?”

Introduction

Variables X, Y, N, n

Subscripts (X1) and Superscripts (X2)

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variability

Standardized or z-Score

Appendix B: Statistical Tables??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Table B.1: Proportions of the Area Under the Normal Curve

Table B.2: 1,200 Two-Digit Random Numbers

Table B.3: Critical Values for Student’s t-Test

Table B.4: Power of Student’s Single-Sample t-Ratio

Table B.5.1: Power of Student’s Two-Sample t-Ratio, One-Tailed Tests

Table B.5.2: Power of Student’s Two-Sample t-Ratio, Two-Tailed Tests

Table B.6: Critical Values for Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient

Table B.7: Critical Values for Spearman’s Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient

Table B.8: r to z Transformation

Table B.9: Power of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient

Table B.10: Critical Values for the F-ratio

Table B.11: Critical Values for the Fmax Test

Table B.12: Critical Values for the Studentized Range Test

Table B.13: Power of ANOVA

Table B.14: Critical Values for Chi-Squared

Table B.15: Critical Values for Mann-Whitney U-Test

Appendix C: Answers to Knowledge Check Questions??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Chapter 15

Chapter 16

Chapter 17

Appendix A

Author Index??????????????????????????????????????

Subject Index????????????????????????????????????????

EULA